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rarely performs the immediate act than the soldier； but he gives commands。 The officer next above him still more rarely acts directly himself； and still more frequently commands。 The general does nothing but command the army； and hardly ever makes use of a weapon。 The commander…in…chief never takes direct part in the action itself； and simply makes general arrangements as to the movements of the masses。 A similar relation exists in every combination of persons for common action—in agriculture； commerce； and in every department of activity。
And so without artificially analysing all the converging planes of the cone and ranks of the army or classes or ranks of any department whatever； or public undertaking； from lower to higher； a law comes into existence； by which men always combine together for the performance of common action in such relation that the more directly they take part in the action； the less they command； and the greater their numbers； and the less direct the part they take in the common action； the more they command； and the fewer they are in number； passing in that way from the lower strata up to a single man at the top； who takes least direct share in the action； and devotes his energy more than all the rest to giving commands。
This is the relation of persons in command to those whom they command； and it constitutes the essence of the conception of what is called power。
Restoring the conditions of time under which all events take place； we found that a command is carried out only when it relates to a corresponding course of events。 Restoring the essential condition of connection between the persons commanding and fulfilling the commands； we have found that by their very nature the persons commanding take the smallest part in the action itself； and their energy is exclusively directed to commanding。
Chapter 7
WHEN SOME EVENT takes place； men express their opinions and desires in regard to the event； and as the event proceeds from the combined action of many men； some one of the opinions or desires expressed is certain to be at least approximately fulfilled。 When one of the opinions expressed is fulfilled； that opinion is connected with the event as the command preceding it。
Men are dragging a log。 Every man expresses his opinion as to how and where to drag it。 The men drag the log off； and it turns out that it has been done just as one of them advised。 He gave the command then。 This is commanding and power in its primitive aspect。
The man who did most work with his arms could think least what he was doing； reflect least what might come of the common action； and so command least。 The man who commanded most could obviously； from his greater verbal activity； act less vigorously with his arms。 In a larger assembly of men； combining their energies to one end； the class of those persons who take the less direct share in the common work the more their energy is turned to command； is still more sharply defined。
When a man acts alone； he always carries within him a certain series of considerations； that have； as he supposes； directed his past conduct； and that serve to justify to him his present action； and to lead him to make projects for his future activity。
Assemblies of men act in the same way； only leaving to those who do not take direct part in the action to invent considerations； justifications； and projects concerning their combined activity。
For causes； known or unknown to us； the French begin to chop and hack at each other。 And to match the event； it is accompanied by its justification in the expressed wills of certain men； who declare it essential for the good of France； for the cause of freedom； of equality。 Men cease slaughtering one another； and that event is accompanied by the justification of the necessity of centralisation of power； of resistance to Europe； and so on。 Men march from west to east； killing their fellow…creatures； and this event is accompanied by phrases about the glory of France； the baseness of England； and so on。 History teaches us that those justifications for the event are devoid of all common…sense； that they are inconsistent with one another； as； for instance； the murder of a man as a result of the declaration of his rights； and the murder of millions in Russia for the abasement of England。 But those justifications have an incontestable value in their own day。
They remove moral responsibility from those men who produce the events。 At the time they do the work of brooms； that go in front to clear the rails for the train： they clear the path of men’s moral responsibility。 Apart from those justifications； no solution could be found for the most obvious question that occurs to one at once on examining any historical event； that is； How did millions of men come to combine to commit crimes； murders； wars； and so on？
Under the existing complex forms of political social life in Europe； can any event be imagined which would not have been prescribed； decreed； commanded by some sovereigns； ministers； parliaments； or newspapers？ Is there any sort of combined action which could not find justification in political unity； or in patriotism； or in the balance of power； or in civilisation？ So that every event that occurs inevitably coincides with some expressed desire； and receiving justification； is regarded as the result of the will of one or more persons。
Whichever way the ship steers its course； there will always be seen ahead of it the flow of the waves it cleaves。 To the men in the ship the movement of those waves will be the only motion perceptible。
It is only by watching closely； moment by moment； the movement of that flow； and comparing it with the movement of the ship； that we are convinced that every moment that flowing by of the waves is due to the forward movement of the ship； and that we have been led into error by the fact that we are ourselves moving too。
We see the same thing； watching moment by moment the movement of historical personages （that is； restoring the inevitable condition under which all action takes place—the condition of the continuity of motion in time）； and not losing sight of the necessary connection of historical figures with the masses。
Whatever happens； it always appears that that was foreseen and decreed。 Whichever way the ship turns； the waves gurgle in front of it； and neither guiding nor accelerating its movement； will seem to us at a distance to be moving arbitrarily and guiding the course of the ship。
Examining only those expressions of the will of historical characters which related to events as commands； historians have assumed that the events were dependent on the commands。 Examining the events themselves； and that connection in which the historical characters stand with the masses； we have found that historical characters and their commands are dependent on the events。 An incontestable proof of this deduction is to be found in the fact that； however many commands may be given； the event does not take place if there is no other cause to produce it。 But as soon as an event does take place—whatever it may be—out of the number of all the expressions of the will of different persons； there are always some which； from their meaning and ti