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to understand life； but could not live for a single instant。
He could not live because all men’s instincts； all their impulses in life； are only efforts to increase their freedom。 Wealth and poverty； health and disease； culture and ignorance； labour and leisure； repletion and hunger； virtue and vice； are all only terms for greater or less degrees of freedom。
To conceive a man having no freedom is impossible except as a man deprived of life。
If the idea of freedom appears to the reason a meaningless contradiction； like the possibility of doing two actions at a single moment of time； or the possibility of an effect without a cause； that only proves that consciousness is not subject to reason。
That unwavering； irrefutable consciousness of freedom； not influenced by experience and argument； recognised by all thinkers； and felt by all men without exception； that consciousness without which no conception of man is reliable； constitutes the other side of the question。
Man is the creation of an Almighty； All…good； and All…wise God。 What is sin； the conception of which follows from man’s consciousness of freedom？ That is the question of theology。
Men’s actions are subject to general and invariable laws； expressed in statistics。 What is man’s responsibility to society； the conception of which follows from his consciousness of freedom？ That is the question of jurisprudence。
A man’s actions follow from his innate character and the motives acting on him。 What is conscience and the sense of right and wrong in action that follows from the consciousness of freedom？ That is the question of ethics。
Man in connection with the general life of humanity is conceived as governed by the laws that determine that life。 But the same man； apart from that connection； is conceived of as free。 How is the past life of nations and of humanity to be regarded—as the product of the free or not free action of men？ That is the question of history。
Only in our conceited age of the popularisation of knowledge； thanks to the most powerful weapon of ignorance—the diffusion of printed matter—the question of the freedom of the will has been put on a level； on which it can no longer be the same question。 In our day the majority of so…called advanced people—that is； a mob of ignoramuses—have accepted the result of the researches of natural science； which is occupied with one side only of the question； for the solution of the whole question。
There is no soul and no free will； because the life of man is expressed in muscular movements； and muscular movements are conditioned by nervous activity。 There is no soul and no free will； because at some unknown period of time we came from apes； they say； and write； and print。 Not at all suspecting that thousands of years ago all religions and all thinkers have admitted—have never； in fact； denied—that same law of necessity； which they are now so strenuously trying to prove by physiology and comparative zoology。 They do not see that natural science can do no more in this question than serve to illumine one side of it。 The fact that； from the point of view of observation； the reason and the will are but secretions of the brain； and that man； following the general law of development； may have developed from lower animals at some unknown period of time； only illustrates in a new aspect the truth； recognised thousands of years ago by all religious and philosophic theories； that man is subject to the laws of necessity。 It does not advance one hair’s…breadth the solution of the question； which has another opposite side； founded on the consciousness of freedom。
If men have descended from apes at an unknown period of time； that is as comprehensible as that they were fabricated out of a clod of earth at a known period of time （in the one case the date is the unknown quantity； in the other the method of fabrication）； and the question how to reconcile man’s consciousness of free will with the law of necessity to which he is subject cannot be solved by physiology and zoology； seeing that in the frog； the rabbit； and the monkey we can observe only muscular and nervous activity； while in man we find muscular and nervous activity plus consciousness。
The scientific men and their disciples who suppose they are solving this question are like plasterers set to plaster one side of a church wall； who； in the absence of the chief superintendent of their work； should in the excess of their zeal plaster over the windows； and the holy images； and the woodwork； and the scaffolding； and rejoice that from the plasterers’ point of view everything was now so smooth and even。
Chapter 9
THE QUESTION of free will and necessity holds a position in history different from its place in other branches of knowledge； because in history； the question relates； not to the essential nature of the will of man； but to the representation of the manifestations of that will in the past and under certain conditions。
History； in regard to the solution of this question； stands to the other sciences in the position of an experimental science to speculative sciences。
The subject of history is not the will of man； but our representation of its action。
And so the insoluble mystery of the union of the two antinomies of freedom and necessity does not exist for history as it does for theology； ethics； and philosophy。 History deals with the representation of the life of man； in which the union of those two antinomies is accomplished。
In actual life every historical event； every human action； is quite clearly and definitely understood； without a sense of the slightest contradiction in it； although every event is conceived of partly as free； and partly as necessary。
To solve the problem of combining freedom and necessity and the question what constitutes the essence of those two conceptions； the philosophy of history can and ought to go to work in a direction opposite to that taken by the other sciences。 Instead of first defining the ideas of freedom and necessity in themselves； and then ranging the phenomena of life under those definitions； history must form the definition of the ideas of free will and necessity from the immense multitude of phenomena in her domain that are always dependent on those two elements。
Whatever presentation of the activity of one man or of several persons we examine； we always regard it as the product partly of that man or men’s free will； partly of the laws of necessity。
Whether we are discussing the migrations of peoples and the inroads of barbarians； or the government of Napoleon III。； or the action of some man an hour ago in selecting one direction for his walk out of several； we see nothing contradictory in it。 The proportion of freedom and necessity guiding the actions of those men is clearly defined for us。
Very often our conception of a greater or less degree of freedom differs according to the different points of view from which we regard the phenomenon。
But every human action is always alike conceived by us as a certain combination of free will and necessity。
In every action we investigate； we see a certain proportion of freedom and a certain proportion of necessity。 And whatever action we investigate； the more nece