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In the same way we can never conceive a human action subject only to necessity without any element of free will。
1。 However we increase our knowledge of the conditions of space in which a man is placed； that knowledge can never be complete since the number of these conditions is infinitely great； seeing that space is in finite。 And so long as not all the conditions that may influence a man are defined； the circle of necessity is not complete； and there is still a loophole for free will。
2。 Though we may make the period of time intervening between an act and our criticism of it as long as we choose； that period will be finite； and time is infinite； and so in this respect too the circle of necessity is not complete。
3。 However easy the chain of causation of any act may be to grasp； we shall never know the whole chain； since it is endless； and so again we cannot attain absolute necessity。
But apart from that； even if； reducing the minimum of free will till it is equivalent to nil； we were to admit in some case—as； for instance； that of a dying man； an unborn babe； an idiot—a complete absence of free will； we should in so doing have destroyed the very conception of man； in the case we are examining； since as soon as there is no free will； there is no man。 And therefore the conception of the action of a man subject only to the law of necessity； without the smallest element of free will； is as impossible as the conception of a completely free human action。
Thus to conceive a human action subject only to the law of necessity without free will； we must assume a knowledge of an infinite number of conditions in space； an infinitely long period of time； and an infinite chain of causation。
To conceive a man perfectly free； not subject to the law of necessity； we must conceive a man outside of space； outside of time； and free from all dependence on cause。
In the first case； if necessity were possible without free will； we should be brought to a definition of the laws of necessity in the terms of the same necessity； that is； to mere form without content。
In the second case； if free will were possible without necessity； we should come to unconditioned free will outside of space； and time and cause； which by the fact of its being unconditioned and unlimited would be nothing else than content without form。
We should be brought in fact to these two fundamental elements； of which man’s whole cosmic conception is made up—the incomprehensible essence of life and the laws that give form to that essence。
Reason says： 1。 space with all the forms given it by its visibility—matter—is infinite； and is not thinkable otherwise。
2。 Time is infinite movement without one moment of rest； and it is not otherwise thinkable。
3。 The connection of cause and effect has no beginning； and can have no end。
Consciousness says： 1。 I alone am； and all that exists is only I； consequently I include space。
2。 I measure moving time by the unchanging moment of the present； in which alone I am conscious of myself living； consequently I am outside of time； and
3。 I am outside of cause； since I feel myself the cause of every phenomenon of my life。
Reason gives expression to the laws of necessity。 Consciousness gives expression to the reality of free will。
Freedom unlimited by anything is the essence of life in man’s consciousness。 Necessity without content is man’s reason with its three forms of thought。
Free will is what is examined： Necessity is what examines。 Free will is content： Necessity is form。
It is only by the analysis of the two sources of knowledge； standing to one another in the relation of form and content； that the mutually exclusive； and separately inconceivable ideas of free will and necessity are formed。
Only by their synthesis is a clear conception of the life of man gained。
Outside these two ideas—in their synthesis mutually definitive as form and content—no conception of life is possible。
All that we know of men’s life is only a certain relation of free will to necessity； that is； of consciousness to the laws of reason。
All that we know of the external world of nature is only a certain relation of the forces of nature to necessity； or of the essence of life to the laws of reason。
The forces of the life of nature lie outside us； and not subject to our consciousness； and we call these forces gravity； inertia； electricity； vital force； and so on。 But the force of the life of man is the subject of our consciousness； and we call it free will。
But just as the force of gravitation—in itself incomprehensible； though felt by every man—is only so far understood by us as we know the laws of necessity to which it is subject （from the first knowledge that all bodies are heavy down to Newton’s law）； so too the force of free will； unthinkable in itself； but recognised by the consciousness of every man； is only so far understood as we know the laws of necessity to which it is subject （from the fact that every man dies up to the knowledge of the most complex economic or historic laws）。
All knowledge is simply bringing the essence of life under the laws of reason。
Man’s free will is distinguished from every other force by the fact that it is the subject of man’s consciousness。 But in the eyes of reason it is not distinguished from any other force。
The forces of gravitation； of electricity； or of chemical affinity； are only distinguished from one another by being differently defined by reason。 In the same way the force of man’s free will is only distinguished by reason from the other forces of nature by the definition given it by reason。 Free will apart from necessity； that is； apart from the laws of reason defining it； is in no way different from gravitation； or heat； or the force of vegetation； for reason； it is only a momentary； indefinite sensation of life。
And as the undefined essence of the force moving the heavenly bodies； the undefined essence of the force of heat； of electricity； or of chemical affinity； or of vital force； forms the subject of astronomy； physics； chemistry； botany； zoology； and so on； so the essence of the force of free will forms the subject matter of history。 But even as the subject of every science is the manifestation of that unknown essence of life； yet that essence itself can only be the subject of metaphysics； so too the manifestation of the force of free will in space； and time； and dependence on cause； forms the subject of history； but free will itself is the subject of metaphysics。
In the experimental sciences； what is known to us we call the laws of necessity； what is unknown to us we call vital force。 Vital force is simply an expression for what remains unexplained by what we know of the essence of life。 So in history what is known to us we call the laws of necessity； what is unknown； we call free will。 Free will is for history simply an expression for what remains unexplained by the laws of men’s life that we know。
Chapter 11
HISTORY examines the manifestations of man’s free will in connection with the external world in time and in dependence on cause； that is； defines that freedom by the laws of reason； and so history is only a science in so far as that freedom is defined by those laws。