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history is only a science in so far as that freedom is defined by those laws。
To history the recognition of the free wills of men as forces able to influence historical events； that is； not subject to laws； is the same as would be to astronomy the recognition of free will in the movements of the heavenly bodies。
This recognition destroys the possibility of the existence of laws； that is； of any science whatever。 If there is so much as one body moving at its free will； the laws of Kepler and of Newton are annulled； and every conception of the movement of the heavenly bodies is destroyed。 If there is a single human action due to free will； no historical law exists； and no conception of historical events can be formed。
For history there exist lines of movement of human wills； one extremity of which vanishes in the unknowable； and at the other extremity of which in space； in time； and in dependence on cause； there moves men’s consciousness of free will in the present。
The more this curve of movement is analysed before our eyes； the clearer are the laws of its movement。 To discover and define those laws is the problem of history。
From the point of view from which the science of history now approaches its subject； by the method it now follows； seeking the causes of phenomena in the free will of men； the expression of laws by science is impossible； since however we limit the free will of men； so long as we recognise it as a force not subject to law； the existence of law becomes impossible。
Only limiting this element of free will to infinity； that is； regarding it as an infinitesimal minimum； we are convinced of the complete unattainability of causes； and then； instead of seeking causes； history sees before itself the task of seeking laws。
The seeking of those laws has been begun long ago； and the new lines of thought which history must adopt are being worked out simultaneously with the self…destruction towards which the old…fashioned history is going； forever dissecting and dissecting the causes of phenomena。
All human sciences have followed the same course。 Reaching infinitesimals； mathematics； the most exact of the sciences； leaves the process of analysis and enters on a new process of approximating to summing up the unknown infinitesimals。 Forsaking the conception of cause； mathematics seeks law； that is； properties common to all unknown； infinitesimal quantities。
The other sciences； too； have followed the same course； though under another form。 When Newton formulated the law of gravity； he did not say that the sun or the earth has the property of attraction。 He said that all bodies—from the greatest to the smallest—have the property of attracting one another； that is； leaving on one side the question of the cause of the movements of bodies； he expressed the property common to all bodies； from the infinitely great to the infinitely small。 The natural sciences do the same thing； leaving on one side the question of cause； they seek for laws。 History； too； is entered on the same course。 And if the subject of history is to be the study of the movements of peoples and of humanity； and not episodes from the lives of individual men； it too is bound to lay aside the idea of cause； and to seek the laws common to all the equal and inseparably interconnected； infinitesimal elements of free will。
Chapter 12
EVER SINCE the law of Copernicus was discovered and proved； the mere recognition that not the sun； but the earth moves； has destroyed the whole cosmography of the ancients。 By disproving the law； it might have been possible to retain the old conception of the movements of the heavenly bodies； but without disproving it； it would seem to be impossible to continue studying the Ptolemaic worlds。 But as a fact even after the discovery of the law of Copernicus； the Ptolemaic worlds long continued to be a subject of study。
Ever since the first person said and proved that the number of births or crimes is subject to mathematical laws； that certain geographical and politico…economical laws determine this or that form of government； that certain relations of the population to the soil lead to migrations of peoples—from that moment the foundations on which history was built were destroyed in their essence。
By disproving those new laws； the old view of history might have been retained。 But without disproving them； it would seem impossible to continue studying historical events； merely as the arbitrary product of the free will of individual men。 For if a certain type of government is established； or a certain movement of peoples takes place in consequence of certain geographical； ethnographical； or economic conditions； the free will of those persons who are described to us as setting up that type of government or leading that movement cannot be regarded as the cause。
And yet history goes on being studied as of old； side by side with laws of statistics； of geography； of political economy； of comparative philology and geology； that flatly contradict its assumptions。
The struggle between the new views and the old was long and stubborn in physical philosophy。 Theology stood on guard over the old view； and accused the new view of violating revelation。 But when truth gained the day； theology established itself as firmly as ever on a new basis。
As long and as obstinate is the conflict to…day between the old and the new view of history； and in the same way theology stands on guard over the old view； and accuses the new of attacking revelation。
In both cases on both sides； the struggle rouses evil passions and stifles truth。 On one side there is dread and regret at demolishing the edifice that has been raised by the ages； on the other； the passion for destruction。
To the men who fought against the new truths of physical philosophy； it seemed that if they were to admit that truth； it would shatter faith in God； in the creation of the firmament； in the miracle of Joshua； the son of Nun。 To the champions of the laws of Copernicus and Newton； to Voltaire； for instance； it seemed that the laws of astronomy were destructive of religion； and the latter made use of the law of gravity as a weapon against religion。
So now it seems that we have but to admit the law of necessity to shatter the conception of the soul； of good； of evil； and of the political and ecclesiastical edifices reared on the basis of those conceptions。
So too； like Voltaire in his day； the champions of the law of necessity use the law as a weapon against religion； though； like the law of Copernicus in astronomy； the law of necessity in history； far from destroying even strengthens the foundation on which political and ecclesiastical edifices are reared。
Just as then in the question of astronomy； now in the question of history； the whole difference of view rested on the recognition or non…recognition of an absolute unit as a measure of visible phenomena。 For astronomy； this was the immobility of the earth； in history； the independence of personality—free will。
Just as in astronomy the difficulty of admitting the motion of the earth lay in the immediate sensation of the earth’s stationariness and of the planets’ motion； so in history the difficulty of recognising the subjec