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working life。 It is simply a bookkeeping record to allow us to allocate some
of the cost of an asset to the appropriate time period。
Table 1。1 Example of the changing ‘worth’ of an asset
Year 1 Year 2
Fixed assets ￡ Fixed assets ￡
Vehicle 6；000 Vehicle 6；000
Less cumulative
depreciation
1；500 Less cumulative
depreciation
3；000
Net asset 4；500 Net asset 3；000
Accounting 19
The time period will be determined by factors such as the working life
of the asset。 The tax authorities do not allow depreciation as a business
expense； so this figure can’t be manipulated to reduce tax liability； for
example。 A tax relief on the capital expenditure； known as ‘writing down’；
is allowed； using a formula set by government that varies from time to time
dependent on current economic goals； for example to stimulate capital
expenditure。
Other assets； such as freehold land and buildings； will be revalued from
time to time； and stock will be entered at cost； or market value； whichever
is the lower； in line with the principle of conservatism （see later in this
chapter）。
Other methods for recording assets
While cost at date of purchase is the norm for accounting for assets in conventional
enterprises； there are certain types of businesses and certain
situations when other methods of recording a monetary figure are used：
。 Market value： This is usually used when an asset is actually to be sold
and there is an established market for that particular type of asset。 This
could arise when a business or part of a business is to be closed down。
。 Fair value： This is described as the estimated price at which an asset
could be exchanged between knowledgeable but unrelated willing
parties who have not； and may not； actually exchange。 This basis is
o。。en used in the due diligence process； where； because of particular
synergies； a price higher than market value （resulting in goodwill）
could reasonably be set。
。 Market to market： This is where market value is calculated on a daily
basis； usually by financial institutions such as banks and stockbrokers。
This can result in dramatic changes in value in turbulent market
conditions； requiring additional assets； including cash； to be found
to cover a fall in market price。 This approach is blamed for helping
to create liquidity ‘black holes’ by forcing banks to sell assets to meet
liquidity targets； which in turn forces prices lower； requiring yet more
assets to be sold。
Going concern
Accounting reports always assume that a business will continue trading
indefinitely into the future – unless there is good evidence to the contrary。
This means that the assets of the business are looked at simply as profit
generators and not as being available for sale。 Look again at the motor
vehicle example above。 In year 2； the net asset figure in the accounts；
prepared on a ‘going concern’ basis； is ￡3；000。 If we knew that the business
20 The Thirty…Day MBA
was to close down in a few weeks； then we would be more interested in
the car’s resale value than its ‘book’ value： the car might fetch only ￡2；000；
which is quite a different figure。
Once a business stops trading； we cannot realistically look at the assets
in the same way。 They are no longer being used in the business to help
generate sales and profits。 The most objective figure is what they might
realize in the marketplace。
Dual aspect
To keep a plete record of any business transaction we need to know
both where money came from and what has been done with it。 It is not
enough simply to say； for example； that a bank has lent a business ￡1m；
we have to show how that money has been used； for example to buy a
property； increase stock levels； or in some other way。 You can think of it as
the accounting equivalent of Newton’s third law： ‘For every force there is
an equal and opposite reaction。’ Dual aspect is the basis of double…entry
bookkeeping （see below）。
The realization concept
A particularly prudent sales manager once said that an order was not an
order until the customer’s cheque had cleared； he or she had consumed the
product； had not died as a result； and； finally； had shown every indication
of wanting to buy again。 Most of us know quite different salespeople who
can ‘anticipate’ the most unlikely volume of sales。 In accounting； ine is
usually recognized as having been earned when the goods （or services） are
dispatched and the invoice sent out。 This has nothing to do with when an
order is received； how firm an order is or how likely a customer is to pay up
promptly。 It is also possible that some of the products dispatched may be
returned at some later date – perhaps for quality reasons。 This means that
ine； and consequently profit； can be brought into the business in one
period and has to be removed later on。
Obviously； if these returns can be estimated accurately； then an
adjustment can be made to ine at the time。 So the ‘sales ine’ figure
that is seen at the top of a profit and loss account is the value of the goods
dispatched and invoiced to customers in the period in question。
The accrual concept
The profit and loss account sets out to ‘match’ ine and expenditure to
the appropriate time period。 It is only in this way that the profit for the
period can be realistically calculated。 Suppose； for example； that you are
Accounting 21
calculating one month’s profits when the quarterly telephone bill es in。
The picture might look like Table 1。2。
This is clearly wrong。 In the first place； three months’ telephone charges
have been ‘matched’ against one month’s sales。 Equally wrong is charging
anything other than January’s telephone bill against January’s ine。
Unfortunately； bills such as this are rarely to hand when you want the accounts；
so in practice the telephone bill is ‘accrued’ for。 The figure （which
may even be absolutely correct if you have a meter） is put in as a provision
to meet this liability when it bees due。
ACCOUNTING CONVENTIONS
These concepts provide a useful set of ground rules； but they are open to a
range of possible interpretations。 Over time； a generally accepted approach
to how the concepts are applied has been arrived at。 This approach hinges
on the use of three conventions： conservatism； materiality and consistency。
Conservatism
Accountants are o。。en viewed as merchants of gloom； always prone to take
a pessimistic point of view。 The fact that a point of view has to be taken at
all is the root of the problem。 The convention of conservatism means that；
given a choice； the accountant takes the figure that will result in a lower
end profit。 This might mean； for example； taking the higher of two possible
expense figures。 Few people are upset if the profit figure at the end of the
day is higher than earlier estimates。 The converse is never true。
Materiality
A strict interpretation of depreciation （see above） could lead to all sorts of
trivial paperwork。 For example； pencil sharpeners； staplers and paperclips；
all theoretically items of fixed assets； should be depreciated over their
working lives。 This