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t to us of a later generation； contemplating in all its vastness the immensity of the accomplished fact； and seeking to penetrate its simple and fearful significance； those explanations must appear insufficient。 To us it is inconceivable that millions of Christian men should have killed and tortured each other； because Napoleon was ambitious； Alexander firm； English policy crafty； and the Duke of Oldenburg hardly treated。 We cannot grasp the connection between these circumstances and the bare fact of murder and violence； nor why the duke’s wrongs should induce thousands of men from the other side of Europe to pillage and murder the inhabitants of the Smolensk and Moscow provinces and to be slaughtered by them。
For us of a later generation； who are not historians led away by the process of research； and so can look at the facts with common…sense unobscured； the causes of this war appear innumerable in their multiplicity。 The more deeply we search out the causes the more of them we discover； and every cause； and even a whole class of causes taken separately； strikes us as being equally true in itself； and equally deceptive through its insignificance in comparison with the immensity of the result； and its inability to produce （without all the other causes that concurred with it） the effect that followed。 Such a cause； for instance； occurs to us as Napoleon’s refusal to withdraw his troops beyond the Vistula； and to restore the duchy of Oldenburg； and then again we remember the readiness or the reluctance of the first chance French corporal to serve on a second campaign； for had he been unwilling to serve； and a second and a third； and thousands of corporals and soldiers had shared that reluctance； Napoleon’s army would have been short of so many men； and the war could not have taken place。
If Napoleon had not taken offence at the request to withdraw beyond the Vistula； and had not commanded his troops to advance； there would have been no war。 But if all the sergeants had been unwilling to serve on another campaign； there could have been no war either。
And the war would not have been had there been no intrigues on the part of England； no Duke of Oldenburg； no resentment on the part of Alexander； nor had there been no autocracy in Russia； no French Revolution and consequent dictatorship and empire； nor all that led to the French Revolution； and so on further back： without any one of those causes； nothing could have happened。 And so all those causes—myriads of causes—coincided to bring about what happened。 And consequently nothing was exclusively the cause of the war； and the war was bound to happen； simply because it was bound to happen。 Millions of men； repudiating their common…sense and their human feelings； were bound to move from west to east； and to slaughter their fellows； just as some centuries before hordes of men had moved from east to west to slaughter their fellows。
The acts of Napoleon and Alexander； on whose words it seemed to depend whether this should be done or not； were as little voluntary as the act of each soldier； forced to march out by the drawing of a lot or by conscription。 This could not be otherwise； for in order that the will of Napoleon and Alexander （on whom the whole decision appeared to rest） should be effective； a combination of innumerable circumstances was essential； without any one of which the effect could not have followed。 It was essential that the millions of men in whose hands the real power lay—the soldiers who fired guns and transported provisions and cannons—should consent to carry out the will of those feeble and isolated persons； and that they should have been brought to this acquiescence by an infinite number of varied and complicated causes。
We are forced to fall back upon fatalism in history to explain irrational events （that is those of which we cannot comprehend the reason）。 The more we try to explain those events in history rationally； the more irrational and incomprehensible they seem to us。 Every man lives for himself； making use of his free…will for attainment of his own objects； and feels in his whole being that he can do or not do any action。 But as soon as he does anything； that act； committed at a certain moment in time； becomes irrevocable and is the property of history； in which it has a significance； predestined and not subject to free choice。
There are two aspects to the life of every man： the personal life； which is free in proportion as its interests are abstract； and the elemental life of the swarm； in which a man must inevitably follow the laws laid down for him。
Consciously a man lives on his own account in freedom of will； but he serves as an unconscious instrument in bringing about the historical ends of humanity。 An act he has once committed is irrevocable； and that act of his； coinciding in time with millions of acts of others； has an historical value。 The higher a man’s place in the social scale； the more connections he has with others； and the more power he has over them； the more conspicuous is the inevitability and predestination of every act he commits。 “The hearts of kings are in the hand of God。” The king is the slave of history。
History—that is the unconscious life of humanity in the swarm； in the community—makes every minute of the life of kings its own； as an instrument for attaining its ends。
Although in that year； 1812； Napoleon believed more than ever that to shed or not to shed the blood of his peoples depended entirely on his will （as Alexander said in his last letter to him）； yet then； and more than at any time； he was in bondage to those laws which forced him； while to himself he seemed to be acting freely； to do what was bound to be his share in the common edifice of humanity； in history。
The people of the west moved to the east for men to kill one another。 And by the law of the coincidence of causes； thousands of petty causes backed one another up and coincided with that event to bring about that movement and that war： resentment at the non…observance of the continental system； and the Duke of Oldenburg； and the massing of troops in Prussia—a measure undertaken； as Napoleon supposed； with the object of securing armed peace—and the French Emperor’s love of war； to which he had grown accustomed； in conjunction with the inclinations of his people； who were carried away by the grandiose scale of the preparations； and the expenditure on those preparations； and the necessity of recouping that expenditure。 Then there was the intoxicating effect of the honours paid to the French Emperor in Dresden； and the negotiations too of the diplomatists； who were supposed by contemporaries to be guided by a genuine desire to secure peace； though they only inflamed the amour…propre of both sides； and millions upon millions of other causes； chiming in with the fated event and coincident with it。
When the apple is ripe and falls—why does it fall？ Is it because it is drawn by gravitation to the earth； because its stalk is withered； because it is dried by the sun； because it grows heavier； because the wind shakes it； or because the boy standing under the tree wants to eat it？
Not one of those is the cause。 All that simply makes up the conjuncti