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determination and independently of empirical conditions；
self…contradictory； that we must therefore make abstraction of all
objects； as in logic； or； admitting them； must think them under
conditions of sensuous intuition； that； consequently； the intelligible
requires an altogether peculiar intuition； which we do not possess；
and in the absence of which it is for us nothing； while； on the
other hand phenomena cannot be objects in themselves。 For； when I
merely think things in general； the difference in their external
relations cannot constitute a difference in the things themselves；
on the contrary； the former presupposes the latter； and if the
conception of one of two things is not internally different from
that of the other； I am merely thinking the same thing in different
relations。 Further； by the addition of one affirmation （reality） to
the other； the positive therein is really augmented； and nothing is
abstracted or withdrawn from it； hence the real in things cannot be in
contradiction with or opposition to itself… and so on。
The true use of the conceptions of reflection in the employment of
the understanding has； as we have shown； been so misconceived by
Leibnitz； one of the most acute philosophers of either ancient or
modern times； that he has been misled into the construction of a
baseless system of intellectual cognition； which professes to
determine its objects without the intervention of the senses。 For this
reason； the exposition of the cause of the amphiboly of these
conceptions； as the origin of these false principles； is of great
utility in determining with certainty the proper limits of the
understanding。
It is right to say whatever is affirmed or denied of the whole of
a conception can be affirmed or denied of any part of it （dictum de
omni et nullo）； but it would be absurd so to alter this logical
proposition as to say whatever is not contained in a general
conception is likewise not contained in the particular conceptions
which rank under it； for the latter are particular conceptions； for
the very reason that their content is greater than that which is
cogitated in the general conception。 And yet the whole intellectual
system of Leibnitz is based upon this false principle； and with it
must necessarily fall to the ground； together with all the ambiguous
principles in reference to the employment of the understanding which
have thence originated。
Leibnitz's principle of the identity of indiscernibles or
indistinguishables is really based on the presupposition that； if in
the conception of a thing a certain distinction is not to be found； it
is also not to be met with in things themselves； that； consequently；
all things are pletely identical （numero eadem） which are not
distinguishable from each other （as to quality or quantity） in our
conceptions of them。 But； as in the mere conception of anything
abstraction has been made of many necessary conditions of intuition；
that of which abstraction has been made is rashly held to be
non…existent； and nothing is attributed to the thing but what is
contained in its conception。
The conception of a cubic foot of space； however I may think it；
is in itself pletely identical。 But two cubic feet in space are
nevertheless distinct from each other from the sole fact of their
being in different places （they are numero diversa）； and these
places are conditions of intuition； wherein the object of this
conception is given； and which do not belong to the conception； but to
the faculty of sensibility。 In like manner； there is in the conception
of a thing no contradiction when a negative is not connected with an
affirmative； and merely affirmative conceptions cannot； in
conjunction； produce any negation。 But in sensuous intuition；
wherein reality （take for example； motion） is given； we find
conditions （opposite directions）… of which abstraction has been made
in the conception of motion in general… which render possible a
contradiction or opposition （not indeed of a logical kind）… and
which from pure positives produce zero = 0。 We are therefore not
justified in saying that all reality is in perfect agreement and
harmony； because no contradiction is discoverable among its
conceptions。* According to mere conceptions； that which is internal is
the substratum of all relations or external determinations。 When；
therefore； I abstract all conditions of intuition； and confine
myself solely to the conception of a thing in general； I can make
abstraction of all external relations； and there must nevertheless
remain a conception of that which indicates no relation； but merely
internal determinations。 Now it seems to follow that in everything
（substance） there is something which is absolutely internal and
which antecedes all external determinations； inasmuch as it renders
them possible； and that therefore this substratum is something which
does not contain any external relations and is consequently simple
（for corporeal things are never anything but relations； at least of
their parts external to each other）； and； inasmuch as we know of no
other absolutely internal determinations than those of the internal
sense； this substratum is not only simple； but also； analogously
with our internal sense； determined through representations； that is
to say； all things are properly monads； or simple beings endowed
with the power of representation。 Now all this would be perfectly
correct； if the conception of a thing were the only necessary
condition of the presentation of objects of external intuition。 It is；
on the contrary； manifest that a permanent phenomenon in space
（impenetrable extension） can contain mere relations； and nothing
that is absolutely internal； and yet be the primary substratum of
all external perception。 By mere conceptions I cannot think anything
external； without； at the same time； thinking something internal；
for the reason that conceptions of relations presuppose given
things； and without these are impossible。 But； as an intuition there
is something （that is； space； which； with all it contains； consists of
purely formal； or； indeed； real relations） which is not found in the
mere conception of a thing in general； and this presents to us the
substratum which could not be cognized through conceptions alone； I
cannot say： because a thing cannot be represented by mere
conceptions without something absolutely internal； there is also； in
the things themselves which are contained under these conceptions； and
in their intuition nothing external to which something absolutely
internal does not serve as the foundation。 For； when we have made
abstraction of all the conditions of intuition； there certainly
remains in the mere conception nothing but the internal in general；
through which alone the external is possible。 But this necessity；
which is grounded upon abstraction alone； does not obtain in the
case of things themselves； in so far as they are given in intuition
with such determinations as express mere relations； without having
anything internal as their foundation； for they are not things of a
thing of which we can neither for they are not things in themselves；
but only phenomena。